Ancient Wales: The Stone Age to the Renaissance

This post was last updated on September 11th, 2024 at 12:33 pm

The term “ancient Wales” covers a vast period that reaches back into antiquity before the first humans settled in what is now Cymru (Wales). It ends with the conclusion of the Renaissance in Britain in 1642. During the millennia in between, the land and people endured incredible changes: some better, some worse. 

What is the timeline for ancient Wales? When exactly does it begin and end? Ancient Wales began as much as 230,000 years ago when the first humans settled in what is now Wales on the island of Great Britain. Of course, Great Britain wasn’t even an island back then. That’s how far back we’re going! In other words, ancient Wales starts with the period known as Prehistoric Wales. 

Prehistoric Wales consists of several subperiods: the Stone Age (Old, Middle, and New), the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. After Prehistoric Wales came the Roman Era, which began in 48 AD. While Roman troops did arrive in Britain in 43 AD, they didn’t reach the “Welsh side” of the island for another five years. Roman Wales lasted from 48 AD until 383 AD, when the Romans withdrew their troops from the western and northern parts of Great Britain. 

This post is all about ancient Wales. 

Ancient Wales

With the Romans departing and no longer exerting influence or control upon the Celtic tribes, the Middle Ages began for Wales. The Middle Ages, also known as the Medieval Period, lasted a little over a thousand years and encompassed three subperiods: the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages. The Middle Ages ended in 1543 when the English King, Henry VIII, incorporated Wales into the realm and brought the Welsh people completely under English law.

The final chapter of ancient Wales was the Renaissance. In Britain, it began in the mid-1500s. The Renaissance ended in 1642 with the start of the civil war in Britain. Why? Because the Puritan parliament closed the playhouses and made theater illegal. However, that’s a long way from the start of our journey in the Old Stone Age. So, we’ll begin at the beginning, in Prehistoric Wales.

Prehistoric Wales

Prehistoric Wales: 228,000 BC to 48 AD (the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age)

What does it mean when we say something is “prehistoric?” Generally, “prehistoric” refers to periods and events before the written word. So, the people of prehistoric times left no written records of their experiences.

When did “prehistory” in Wales begin? Prehistoric Wales began about 450,000 years ago when the British peninsula started to separate from the continent of Europe. By 228,000 BC, hominids (Neanderthals) were settling in Wales. It wasn’t until 6,100 BC that the island of Great Britain broke away from the continent completely when struck by a tsunami. 

Human Settlements in Ancient Wales

When the last Ice Age ended, about 12,000 years ago, people settled in Wales more permanently. By this time, Neanderthals had long been extinct, and Homo sapiens moved in. These primitive humans lived during the Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age). While they first arrived in Wales in about 31,000 BC, the climate was inhospitable, so humans were more transient during the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age).

Prehistoric Wales continued into the New Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. It ended with the Roman invasion of Cymru in 48 AD. While the Romans sent troops to Britain in 43 AD, it took them longer to get to Wales due to tribal resistance on the island, the rough terrain, and the weather. 

As you’ll learn below, Prehistoric Wales was a time of immense change that brought new people to the region. Newcomers arrived with new tools and ways of doing things. These various groups of ancient hunters, farmers, and warriors tell their stories through the fascinating monuments and artifacts they’ve left behind.

Neolithic Wales

Neolithic (New Stone Age) Wales: 4,000 BC – 2,400 BC

Why is Neolithic Wales such a notable period in our Ancient Wales timeline? Significant changes happened during the New Stone Age. Not only did these changes affect how people lived and worked, but they also transformed the very land over the years. That transformation gave Wales some of its particular landscape and environmental features that make Cymru what it is today. 

Who Were the Original Inhabitants of Britain?

Hunter-gatherers of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) are the earliest known inhabitants of what we now know as Britain and, therefore, ancient Wales within it. Contrary to popular and encyclopedic belief, the people of this period looked very different than modern Welsh people, other Celts, and English folk in the British Isles. The hunter-gatherers had medium brown to black skin. In contrast to their dark complexions, they also had hazel, blue-green, or blue eyes. 

Big Changes on a Small Island

The New Stone Age finds people shifting from hunting and gathering to farming. People still hunted and fished out of need or want, but they now had livestock for food, milk, wool, and hides. This great shift in how they lived started with the influx of farmers from the Mediterranean. They absorbed part of the hunter-gatherer population and wiped out the rest. Archaeological remains show that although there were physical conflicts, a decline in the native population was likely due to new diseases introduced by the newcomers.

Like the hunter-gatherers, the Mediterranean farmers also looked different from light-skinned Europeans. They were also dark, with medium brown skin and dark brown hair and eyes. While they didn’t seem to integrate well with the existing population culturally, they may have co-existed peacefully in some places. We know this because some Welsh people today still carry DNA that traces all the way back to the hunter-gatherers!

As the population transitioned to a life based on agriculture, they gradually changed the landscape itself. Over the centuries, tree removal, soil erosion, and livestock grazing turned the Welsh terrain into what it is today.

Bodowyr Burial Chamber

The Neolithic period is also the time that has given us so many of the incredible stone monuments, especially megalithic tombs, that are still standing. Bodowyr Burial Chamber in Snowdonia National Park is a perfect example. Historians believe its creators built it between 4,000 and 2,000 BC. Originally covered with earth, this type of burial chamber is called a “passage grave.” The ancient people accessed the interior chambers by means of a narrow stone passage. While the passage has crumbled over time, archeologists have found evidence that Bodowyr is most likely this type of tomb. It has three large stones forming the walls and is “capped” with a large, flatter stone called a “capstone.”

As mentioned earlier, the builders of Bodowyr Burial Chamber covered it with earth, making it a burial mound originally. They may have also then covered the mound with stones. This practice was widespread in Wales. Burial mounds or other graves covered with rocks are called “cairns.” Cairns appear all over Cymru, many of which have never been excavated. Bodowyr is one such grave. We still don’t know who is buried there and what treasures their buriers placed alongside them.

Round Barrows From the Bronze Age

Bronze Age Wales: 2,400 BC – 800 BC

The Neolithic period in Wales drew to a close around 2,400 BC as folks gained the ability to smelt metal for weapons and tools. This metal was, of course, bronze. How did the Neolithic farmers learn this new skill? A group of settlers we call “The Beaker People” arrived on the island. They brought bronze tools and weapons and their knowledge of metalcraft. The Beaker Folk have been so named for the bell-shaped pottery and cups (beakers) they made. They buried this pottery with their dead, which is one of the ways archaeologists have learned what we know about them.

The Bronze Age in Britain lasted from 2,400 BC to 800 BC. While people still used stone tools to a certain degree, the time of the stone ax was over. Metal was more functional, and its decorative properties also showed the bearer’s status. Gold and copper were also mined and crafted into jewelry or used for elements and adornments of tools and weapons.

Farming and Burial Practices

People continued farming, and by this time, they’d become quite organized about it. They also built their settlements within enclosures to keep livestock in while providing some defense against wild animals and enemies. Another thing that changed was the way they buried their dead. During the late Neolithic to early Bronze Age, people began abandoning the creation of chambered tombs like Bodowyr. Now, they favored round barrows of various shapes and sizes.

In Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, round barrows are usually called “cairns.” It’s usually in England that we hear the term “round barrows” for burial sites. However, the construction is the same. The Beaker People left many round barrows across Wales. A famous one is Bryn yr Ellyllon, which means “The Hill of the Goblins.” It’s located near Flintshire, in North Wales. This round barrow revealed a literal mound of treasures, including the Mold Gold Cape!

Ancient Wales in the Iron Age

Iron Age Wales: 800 BC – 48 AD

Din Lligwy

By the Iron Age, which spanned from 750 BC to the Roman Invasion in 43 AD, people in Wales started living in roundhouses and hillforts. The Iron Age also brought some key inhabitants to the British Isles when we consider Wales: the Celts! They may have arrived as early as 1000 BC and, by 600 BC, had well established themselves in Britain.

Din Lligwy is the remains of a Celtic-made Roman-Era settlement on Ynys Môn (Isle of Anglesey). However, one of the features that makes it so exciting and unique is that some of its structures date to the Iron Age. This means that while most of it dates to 200 to 300 AD, people built some parts of it centuries before. The tribe may have built the huts as early as 800 BC. The site was excavated in the early 1900s, revealing coins, tools, animal bones, pottery, and a musical instrument from Roman times.

Ancient Welsh Tribes

The Celts lived in tribal societies throughout Europe in the Hallstatt, Urnfield, and La Tène culture areas. They lived in hillforts or open settlements and shared a common language, religious beliefs, customs, and a similar art style. However, aside from this, the Celts were quite diverse. Each tribe had its own ways of doing things, manner of dress, and nuanced burial practices.

The Celts migrated to the British Isles beginning in approximately 1,000 BC. While scholars have made La Tène in Switzerland the agreed-upon, textbook origination point of the Celts of Britain, experts are still debating it. However, we do know that the Celts of Europe originally came from the Kurdan people of Central Asia.

The Ordovices, Silures, Demetae, Gangani, and Deceangli are the five Celtic tribes of ancient Wales. They occupied Cymru before and during the Roman invasion. Although they were fierce warriors, some tribes were more peaceful than others and submitted to Roman rule. The Ordovices, on the other hand, fought tooth and nail and almost wiped out an entire Roman regiment.

Roman Wales

Roman Wales: 48 AD – 383 AD

While the Romans first set foot in Britain in 43 AD, they didn’t invade Wales until 48 AD. They had to fight their way west through unfavorable terrain and unwelcoming Celts who, rightfully, didn’t take so kindly to being invaded. Once Roman troops made it to what is now Cymru, it took about 20 years to subdue its occupants. Even then, parts of Wales were never fully conquered. Still, there’s no denying that the Roman Occupation affected every aspect of Celtic life.

One of the main ways the Romans kept the Celtic tribes under control was through a series of forts. They placed about 40 large forts and 13 smaller ones, totaling 53 military stations in Wales. While this eventually brought the north and east of Wales under control, the Dematae tribes in southwest Wales managed to hold out. They occupied what is present-day Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire. The Dematae retained their lands and tribal names until the Middle Ages.

What Did the Romans Call Wales?

What the Romans called Wales depended on a couple of factors: the period and the land area they were referring to. In Roman Britain, Wales did not exist as an entity. Therefore, the Romans usually referred to the island of Great Britain as a whole. They called it “Brittania Major.” This name distinguished it from “Brittania Minor,” which then referred to Brittany, a region in northwestern France.

When referring to areas within Wales itself, the Romans most likely used the names of the Celtic tribes occupying the region—either their proper names or the Romanized versions of them. For example, they may have referred to “the land of the Ordovices” or a similar term, just as Scotland was known as Pictland.

By medieval times, the Romans had a term for Wales itself. They called it “Cambria.” This name probably derives from the Welsh word “Cymry,” which means “fellow countrymen” or “compatriots.” Another term the Romans used for Wales in the Middle Ages was “Wallia.” It’s from the Germanic word “walhaz” and meant anyone who didn’t speak a Germanic language.

Ancient Welsh People

From Hunter-Gatherers Against Sabre-Toothed Cats to Celts Against Romans

Hunter-Gatherers

The very first ancient Welsh people were hunter-gatherers. Historians believe them to be the original settlers of Britain. They came to the island from the European continent as early as 40,000 years ago, but the inhospitable climate drove them out. Back then, the climate of the British Isles swung between low temperatures and treeless plains to ice ages that made habitation impossible. By about 11,700 years ago, Homo Sapiens returned via the land bridge. There have been humans in Wales ever since.

Neolithic Farmers

Around 4,000 BC, Neolithic farmers arrived in Wales from the Mediterranean. They emigrated from the region that is now Turkey. They wiped out the original hunter-gatherer population by bringing new diseases to the island, through violence, or a combination of the two. In some areas, they may have peacefully integrated. The new farmers brought their agricultural skills to Britain. They taught the remaining hunter-gatherers how to farm the land and raise livestock.

The Beaker People

Then, in approximately 2,500 BC, the Beaker People arrived in Britain. Historians have given them this name due to the bell-shaped pottery they made. They originated from the region that is now Kazakhstan (located in Central Asia with a part in Eastern Europe) and Ukraine in Eastern Europe. While the hunter-gatherers and the Neolithic farmers were dark-complected, the Beaker Folk were lighter-skinned. They still commonly had dark hair and eyes, but their population also included people with blonde hair and blue eyes. The Beakers brought bronze tools and weapons and their knowledge of how to smelt copper ore. It was they who brought the Bronze Age to Wales. Within 500 years, they wiped out about 90% of the Neolithic farmers.

The Celts of Ancient Wales

Around 1,000 BC, the Beakers found their island invaded by warlike tribes from Europe: the Celts. And with the Celts arrival, the Iron Age began for Britain. These diverse tribes had no single ruler and spoke Common Celtic (also called “Proto-Celtic”), which later evolved into Insular Celtic. You can read more about some of the fascinating history of the Celtic languages here in my post about the differences between Celtic and Gaelic.

While there were bound to have been some clashes here and there, the Celts didn’t wipe out the Beaker People. They intermingled and absorbed them, the resulting culture being Celtic. They taught the existing Bronze Age society how to smelt iron ore for better tools and weapons. As the evolving tribal societies progressed through the ages, after the Roman Occupation, these tribes eventually became powerful families who formed kingdoms.

These kingdoms developed out of need: when the Romans withdrew in 383 AD, the tribes needed a way to govern themselves. The original kingdoms were Powys, Brycheiniog, Gwynedd, Seisyllwg, Morgannwg, Dyfed, and Gwent. The Welsh kings and princes also needed to defend themselves from Anglo-Saxons and Viking invaders. By the Middle Ages, the kingdoms of Wales consisted of Gwynedd, Morgannwg, Brycheiniog, Deheubarth, Powys, and Gwent.

Are the Welsh Celtic or Gaelic?

To answer this question correctly, we have to clarify these terms. The word “Celtic” refers to the language and culture of the Celtic tribes. At one time, these tribes occupied a vast area that included Europe, Germany, Spain, France, and the British Isles. It was the language they shared more than anything else, as each society was different. However, besides speaking the same tongue, the Celtic tribes used the same methods of warfare and had common art styles, religion, and burial practices. Even these were nuanced between societies.

We call the language spoken by the Celts in Europe “Continental Celtic.” As the Celts migrated to the British Isles, the language changed in that part of the world and became “Insular Celtic.” These were the two main branches of the Celtic language. As Celtic culture evolved in Britain, Insular Celtic split into two groups: Brythonic and Goidelic. The Brythonic branch gave us the languages of Breton, Cornish, and Welsh. Goidelic, on the other hand, gave us Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx Gaelic.

The term “Gaelic” (pronounced “gal-lick” and not “gale-lick”) refers to the Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Therefore, the Welsh are Celtic but not Gaelic since Welsh is a Brythonic language.

Ancient Wales in the Middle Ages

Medieval Wales: 383 AD – 1543 AD

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The Journey Through Wales and the Description of Wales

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Scholar, churchman, diplomat, and theologian Gerald of Wales was one of the most fascinating figures of the Middle Ages, and The Journey Through Wales describes his eventful tour of the country as a missionary in 1188. In a style reminiscent of a diary, Gerald records the day-to-day events of the mission alongside lively accounts of local miracles, folklore, and religious relics such as Saint Patrick’s Horn and eloquent descriptions of natural scenery that includes the rugged promontory of St David’s and the vast snow-covered panoramas of Snowdonia. The landscape is evoked in further detail in The Description, which chronicles the everyday lives of the Welsh people with skill and affection. Witty and gently humorous throughout, these works provide a unique view into the medieval world.

Is Welsh the Oldest Language in Europe?

While Cymraeg (Welsh) is an old language, it’s not the oldest in Europe. It turns out that the Greek language claims that title. However, Welsh traces back as much as 4,000 years with its proto-Celtic roots. Back then, we would hardly recognize any of the words as Welsh or related to it. Still, it got its start with Common Celtic (also called Proto-Celtic), which the tribes spoke as early as 1,300 BC. Historians believe Common Celtic originated from Central Europe’s “Hallstatt Zone” in Austria. So, although Welsh isn’t the oldest language in Europe, it’s the oldest language in Britain that people still speak today.

Welsh Language Timeline

Around 1,400 years ago, the language became distinctly Welsh as we know it (as opposed to Common or Insular Celtic).

Were the Tudors Welsh?

Yes, the Tudor ancestry traces back to Penmynydd, a village in Ynys Môn (Anglesey), North Wales. In fact, if it weren’t for their Welsh roots and connections, the family wouldn’t have been able to rise to power as they did—quite meteorically, we might add.

The Tudor Family started when Owain ap Maredydd ap Tudur, an attendant, secretly married Catherine of Valois. (Note: “ap” means “son of.”) In other words, Owain was little more than a servant then. Catherine, however, was the widowed queen of King Henry V. The English parliament forbade Catherine from remarrying without the King’s consent. However, she ignored this and married Owain anyway. This illicit union launched Owain from a lowly position to the grandfather of kings. His grandson, Henry VII, founded the Tudor dynasty.

The Birth of the Tudor Family in Ancient Wales

The rest of the story of the Tudors’ Welsh ancestry traces back to Goronwy, one of the sons of Ednyfed Fychan. Goronwy was a brave and celebrated Welsh warrior, rising to prominence as the seneschal (a steward of a great house) of the Kingdom of Gwynedd in northern Wales. His father, Ednyfed Fychan, served under Llywelyn the Great. Later, Ednyfed continued serving under Llywelyn’s son, Dafydd ap Llywelyn. Ednyfed claimed descent from Marchudd ap Cynan, the Lord of Rhos. Marchudd was renowned for actively protecting the interests of Rhodri the Great, the King of Gwynedd. Rhodri was also one of the greatly honored and respected founders among the Fifteen Tribes of Wales.

Ancient Wales in the Renaissance

Renaissance Wales: 1543 AD – 1642 AD

The Renaissance in Wales brought the printing press to Cymru, an innovation only dreamed of by previous generations. In 1587, the Bishop of Llandaff and St. Asaph, Beibl William Morgan, finished translating the entire Bible into Welsh from Greek and Hebrew—a first. It was a task that took him nearly twenty years. Before this, only parts of the Holy Bible had been available in Welsh since the 1400s. With the availability of printers in 1588, the Welsh Bible was published for the first time in London. Queen Elizabeth had one placed in every church across Wales.

While much literature and art remains from Renaissance Wales, some living things from this era have stood the test of time and are with us today: trees! Yes, you can find woodland with trees that date to this period in Wales. Forests fall under different designations depending on the type and are protected by Forestry Commission Wales.

Ancient Woodland Wales

For woodland in Wales to be considered ancient, it must date back to at least the year 1,600 during the Renaissance. Forests meeting this criteria only cover about 2 – 2.5% of the United Kingdom. However, these protected areas are home to native Welsh broadleaf trees, are the most biodiverse habitats in the country, and contribute to the environment in unique ways. While no forest remains in Wales that has been left entirely undisturbed by humans, ancient woodland contains at least portions left relatively undisturbed.

How can you identify an ancient forest? You might have to examine an ancient woodland inventory to know for sure. However, here are a few things to look for to tell you if you may have encountered an ancient woodland. 

• Trees: Guelder rose, Lime, small-leafed, Wild service tree, Spindle
• Flowers: Bluebell, Wood anemone, Primrose, Lily-of-the-valley, Wild garlic, Dog’s mercury, Red campion
• Ferns: Scaly male fern, Hard fern, Hart’s tongue fern
• Lichens: Barnacle lichen, Lungwort lichens
• Slugs: Lemon slug
• Insects: Violet click beetle
• Evergreen perennial: Pendulous sedge
• Fungus: Hazel gloves fungus

Why is the Daffodil a Symbol of Wales?

How did the daffodil become a symbol of Wales? Many people may not realize this, but the daffodil and leek are both national emblems of Wales. Wales adopted the leek as the first emblem. According to legend (and there are a few out there—this is but one), King Cadwaladr, the King of Gwynedd, told his Welsh warriors to wear leeks in their caps during battle with the Saxons. He wanted to ensure they could distinguish friend from foe and secure a victory. And secure a great victory they did. The floral token seemed to have not only served as a type of practical insignia but also brought the Welsh good fortune.

The Mysterious “Peter’s Leek”

The daffodil’s origin story as a Welsh symbol comes to us by way of a few theories. The leek and daffodil have similar names in Welsh. The Welsh word for leek is “Cenhinen,” while daffodil is “Cenhinen Pedr.” Since Cenhinen Pedr means “Peter’s Leek,” people may have confused the daffodil and leek as Welsh symbols over time. Additionally, daffodils bloom around St. David’s Day. He was a Welsh monk who spread Christianity throughout pagan Wales in the 6th century. The Welsh made the daffodil a second emblem of Wales when Prime Minister David Lloyd George advocated for them in the early 20th century.

However, there has yet to be an official answer as to why the daffodil became a symbol of Wales. It’s still a bit of a mystery. Perhaps one day, we’ll find a legend behind it, just as we have with the noble leek.

You can find all my posts about ancient Wales on this page: Wales.

This post was all about ancient Wales.