This post was last updated on May 16th, 2025 at 02:28 pm
One of the most interesting things about Roman Wales is that it never existed. How can that be? That is, it didn’t exist as we might think of it or in one specific way. Not only did Cymru not exist as a country, but Celtic life varied by region despite Roman rule.
What is this period we refer to as “Roman Wales,” and why is there really no such thing in a sense? And if it never existed, how can there be so many Roman ruins in Wales? When the Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD, Wales didn’t exist as an entity. Neither did England, Scotland, or Ireland, for that matter. So, when we speak of Roman Wales, we mean the area of Great Britain that later became the Welsh kingdoms. Those kingdoms then, much later, became the country of Cymru. However, that was far in the future. Also, to keep things simple, we’ll continue using the terms “Roman Wales” or “Wales” as we unravel the rest.
When the Romans made it to Wales in 48 AD, six Celtic tribes occupied the land. No one leader or government unified them. Most of these societies (though not all) were warlike. They fought against not only the newcomers invading their land but also against each other. These Celtic tribes held in common only similar religious beliefs, certain traditions, and a common language known as Brythonic. The Romans referred to the people of these different tribes collectively as “the Britons.” The Britons were ancient Welsh people. Brythonic, the language they spoke, would one day evolve into Welsh.
This post is about Roman Wales.
Roman Wales: 48 AD – 410 AD
Besides the lack of a country called Cymru, the Welsh language, or clear borders, the next thing to understand about Roman Wales is that it didn’t exist in one specific way throughout the region. One reason is that Wales, though eventually conquered, wasn’t dominated in the complete sense like other parts of the island. Another reason Roman Wales didn’t exist in a clearly defined sense is that Celtic life differed depending on where one lived. A Celt living in a civitas—a Roman town governed by Celts—lived a different life from someone dwelling in the isolated hills of far west Wales. Some tribes living in remote areas went on much as they always had (at least in many ways).
Did the Romans come to Wales?
Yes. After the Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD, it took them another five years to get to Wales. The terrain was rugged and unfamiliar. And the British weather? Forget it. Besides that, some of the natives were more than a little uncooperative. However, the invaders persisted, and by 48 AD, the Romans crossed into Wales via the River Dee and began asserting control over one area at a time.
That crossing, along with other incursions of the period, began the Roman occupation of Wales, which lasted from 48 to 383 AD (although the Romans weren’t “all gone” until more like 410 AD). By 78 AD, the Romans had mostly conquered Wales.
Evidence left behind by the Romans in Wales includes the ruins of military forts, towns occupied by governed Celts, and Roman roads. In fact, for centuries, the best way to cross Great Britain was via a Roman road.
What was Wales called in Roman times?
It depended on the period. The short answer about what the Romans called Wales is “Britannia Secunda,” although that was much later, around 296 AD. The longer answer begins with the fact that Roman Wales didn’t initially have a unique name. It was a part of “Britannia Major,” which is what the Romans called the island of Great Britain. The name distinguished it from Britannia Minor (Brittany in France).
However, returning to the Celtic tribes in Wales during the Roman invasion, the Romans most likely referred to individual territories. They may have referenced the “Ordovices’ land” or spoken of that of the Deacangli. They called the Brythonic-speaking Celts by their tribal names or collectively called them “the Britons.”
Much later, the Romans divided Britain into provinces. Around 296 AD, they called Wales “Britannia Secunda,” as mentioned. Later, in medieval times, Latin names for Wales appeared, such as “Cambria” or “Wallia.” You can read an entire post about the Roman name for Wales here: What did the Romans call Wales?
Celtic Tribes in Roman Wales
Today, the word “Celts” describes tribes of people who lived during the late Bronze Age and throughout the Iron Age. They were different tribal societies that shared a similar culture, language, and religion. We still don’t know what the Celts called themselves, and because they left behind no written language, we may never know. However, because of Roman and Greek interactions, we have records of some of the individual tribal names. For other tribes, we know the Romanized or Greek names for the tribes, which may have been similar to or derived from their Celtic names.
“Ordovices,” for example, is a Latin word for a tribe that occupied North Wales. A theory is that the name might come from “Ordo-wik” in Celtic, which could have translated as “hammer fighters.” In contrast, the Deceangli and Gangani are two words that are the true Celtic names by which those tribes called themselves.
The Celts originated from Central and Western Europe. They began arriving in Britain around 1,000 BC, establishing a strong presence on the island by about 600 BC. Their arrival brought the Iron Age to the British Isles, and they absorbed the Bronze Age Beaker culture. By the time the Romans invaded Britain in AD 43, six established Celtic tribes occupied the area now known as modern-day Wales. These were:
- Silures (southeastern Wales)
- Ordovices (northwestern Wales)
- Demetae (southwestern Wales)
- Deceangli (northeastern Wales)
- Gangani (northeastern Wales)
- Cornovii (central borderlands)
Roman Wales Timeline
The First Roman Invasion of Britain
While the Roman occupation of Britain began in earnest by AD 43, the Romans first attempted to invade Britain earlier in 55 AD under Julius Caesar. He came with eighty transport ships carrying two legions. While he and his troops initially successfully defeated the tribes in what is now England, a terrible storm took out many ships in his fleet. Although this event forced Caesar and his men to return to Rome, he still declared this venture a victory.
A year later, in 54 AD, Caesar tried again with even more troops and greater preparations. The weather made the going slow at times, but eventually, Caesar defeated Cassivellaunus, the chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe. However, Caesar and his army soon had to leave Britain due to trouble in Gaul. Despite the victories over several tribes, these two invasions didn’t successfully conquer the British Celts. Caesar did, however, form alliances with some tribes, capture people to take back to Rome, obtain plunder, and stop the British tribes from aiding the people of Gaul. Caesar never returned, and in 44 AD, his men assassinated him on the famous Ides of March (15th of March).
The Second Roman Invasion of Britain
That brings us to Emperor Claudius’ reign. When he invaded Britain in 43 AD, not only were he and his men better prepared, but he had much to gain by conquering Britain. Interestingly, it wasn’t even about adding new territory to the Roman Empire. If he could pull it off, he’d show Rome that he accomplished something that even Julius Caesar couldn’t.
Claudius landed in Britain with 40,000 men and many war elephants (yes, really) to intimidate the Britons. His troops were armed with advanced weapons and war machines like siege engines to break into fortified structures. They also had ballistas to launch bolts or stones. Roman forces quickly conquered the island’s southeast inhabitants, and eleven tribes surrendered. Victorious, Claudius returned to Rome after 16 days, but the Roman troops stayed to continue their campaign across Britain.
It took the Romans another five years to get to Wales. They had to fight their way across the island, again contending with unfamiliar terrain, British weather, and fierce sword and axe-wielding Celts. While doing so, the Romans still had to maintain conquered territory and continue relations with allies. However, in 48 AD, the Deacangli tribe in northeastern Wales submitted to the Romans.
Fierce Celtic Warriors Fight Back
Needless to say, the Welsh Celts inhabiting nearby lands didn’t take kindly to this and began putting up stiff resistance against the Roman advancement. Caractacus (also known as Caradog in Welsh folklore and sometimes called Caradoc), who led the Silures and Ordovices, was primarily responsible for planning this opposition.
This tribal chieftain was already battle-hardened and harboring a fierce grudge against the Romans. They had forced him to flee his home in what is now Essex, England, to Wales after defeat at a battle near the River Medway. So, he and his warriors conducted a series of devastating guerrilla warfare missions against the Romans.
Caractacus proved a worthy adversary against the Romans. His warriors held out against Rome’s advanced military force for years. Unfortunately, the Romans eventually defeated him in 50 AD on the Welsh border at the battle of Caer Caradoc, where he was captured and taken to Rome. Emperor Claudius was said to have been so impressed with the fierce Celtic warrior, however, that he pardoned him.
The Romans continued to push for control throughout Wales, and the Celtic tribes still heavily resisted. The Ordovices were the last tribe to be subdued by the Romans, holding out for an impressive thirty years before Governor Agricola defeated them. By 90 AD, Rome had conquered virtually all the tribes in Wales. The vast majority of the regions now known as England and Wales were under Roman rule.
Ruins of Roman Forts in Wales
Once the Romans had established themselves in Wales, they began to divide this part of Britannia into military and civilian zones. The civilian zones were in the lowlands. The military zones, for tactical reasons, were in the highlands.
To help protect the border, they constructed three major permanent fortresses at Chester, York, and Isca Silurum, next to the River Usk. The fortress at Isca Silurum (sometimes called Isca Augusta) was one of the most important forts in the area, as it played a large part in Rome’s ability to conquer Britain.
Located in what is now the suburb of Newport in South Wales, the fortress is called Caerleon-on-Usk in the present day. The fort housed 5,600 soldiers and even featured an amphitheater that showcased brutal gladiatorial competitions. You can still see some of the remains today.
Since Wales was part of the Romans’ military zone, they constructed more than 30 auxiliary forts across the country. They joined one fort to the next by long, straight roads. Many of these roads in Wales remain. When the Romans constructed these roads to link the forts, they designed them to be one full day’s march away from one another.
The Romans also constructed forts at Pen-Y-Gaer and Y-Gaer near Brecon. These stone installations were initially primitive and made from turf and timber. They deliberately performed this light construction, knowing they wouldn’t occupy these forts long. The remains of many of these structures still stand to this day and can be viewed in places such as the Bannau Brycheiniog National Park.
To tour sites from Roman Wales, visit Cadw, Wales’ historic preservation service. For a Roman Wales map showing all the Roman forts and roads in Wales, click here.
Natural Resources
Wales contained valuable resources like copper, lead, slate, zinc, silver, and gold. While the Celts only did a small amount of mining by comparison, the Romans took up mining in the area in earnest. They built a prominent mine at Dolaucothi in Carmarthenshire. Remarkably, the Dolaucothi Gold Mine is still there, and you can see it for yourself. The National Trust maintains it as the only known Roman mine in the United Kingdom that is still in existence.
What happened to Wales after the Romans left?
After the Romans left, the Celts in Wales had to “look to their own defenses,” as Roman emperor Honorius told the Britons in his famous letter from 410 AD when they asked for help. However, the Romans didn’t leave all at once. They started withdrawing troops in 383 AD, and by 410, most Romans had gone. By this time, Britain was struck by groups of invading Scots, Angles, Saxons, and Picts. With this marking the end of Roman Britain and, therefore, Roman Wales, the Celts had to defend and govern themselves once again.
Why did the Romans leave Britain?
They left for several reasons. For one thing, maintaining control over Britannia, an island so far from Rome, was expensive and challenging. Due to the problems that arose, it became unsustainable.
Tribes Invading Britain
The Romans in Britain were running out of resources and were constantly being hit by outside forces. By the late 4th century, invading tribes were heavily invading areas that are now England and Wales. The tribes included those of the unconquered Irish and Scottish in the north and the Saxons from the continent.
Attacks on the Empire
Problems also loomed back in the Western Roman Empire, such as increasing attacks from Vandals (a Germanic people from what is now Poland) and Visigoths (another Germanic group that formed kingdoms in Gaul and Spain). Huns also attacked after migrating from Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
Civil War in Rome
Rome was under civil war and turbulence due to frequent changes of emperors seizing control. In 410 AD, the Visigoths attacked the city of Rome itself. Their raid was successful, and they managed to capture and plunder it.
Are the Welsh descendants of the Romans?
No, the Welsh aren’t directly descended from the Romans. Still, due to the shared past, some Welsh people do have Italian ancestry. The Beaker Folk, the Celts, and the Neolithic Farmers of Britain influenced Welsh heritage more than others. Additionally, like all humans on our planet, the Welsh DNA puzzle is complicated and contains many pieces. You can read a post about the subject here: Who Are the Welsh Descended From?
Despite most Romans leaving Wales, some, such as veterans, stayed behind and integrated into the British communities. These people had built their lives there—some were born in Cymru, and it was far more home than Rome would be. They farmed, became merchants, or artisans like the Britons. There were also “Welsh Romans.” These were Britons who had grown up under the Roman influence. Some were bilingual, followed Roman customs, or even had Romanized names.
Welshness Emerges in the Dark Ages
Gradually, Roman culture declined, a change that didn’t happen overnight. However, the Latin language influenced Brythonic words that later became primitive Welsh. The Celts of Wales also had the new religion of Christianity. However, many Welsh Celts continued to practice their traditional paganism, especially in remote areas, into the 7th century.
The post-Roman period was a turbulent time when the tribes fought against new invaders and each other to establish control over areas. Eventually, tribal chieftains became kings or queens who ruled over newly forming kingdoms. It was then, during the Dark Ages, that a tangible sense of Welshness began to emerge as we think of it today.
This post was about Roman Wales.
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